THE INFLUENCE OF MARCEL DUCHAMP
MARCEL DUCHAMP, ROBERT RAUSCHENBERG, AI WEIWEI
“Artists who innovate and challenge existing conventions have an effect on the art world as profound as an earthquake – they change the shape of the art landscape”
It is the opinion of many art critics, that Marcel Duchamp is the most influential artist of the 20th century- the spark that re-ignited art and pulled it out of the conventionalist hollowness of retinal art, that it had been consumed by for centuries. It has been said that without Duchamp there would be no conceptual art, and without him, many prominent postmodernist works would simply not exist. That is the severity of his influence- his works and practice sent shock waves through the art world during the early 20th century, the ramifications of which caused art conventions to be turned upside down, and the laws of art to be completely reinvented. Duchamp’s theories have embedded themselves within art history, evident in the works of the iconic Robert Rauschenberg, and continuing on into the 21st century in the works of radicals such as Ai WeiWei. Marcel Duchamp; innovator, iconoclast, radical, alchemist, pioneer of Dadaism, revolutionary, and strictly anti-art.
Duchamp was an artist in Paris, in the early 20th century, a time when Paris was the centre of the art world- and a time when the art world was just beginning to foster avant-garde influences- through the likes of impressionism and postimpressionism. Duchamp did not identify with any specific art circles such as the impressionists or Dadaists-however, it is evident in Duchamp’s works and practice, that he held strong influences from the Dada movement- a movement that sought to challenge conventional art, and dismantle the traditional framework of ‘what art should be’. Dada was a movement that began in Switzerland during World War One, in response to the turmoil and conflict- which ultimately meant that an anti-war and anti-authoritarian attitude was the foundation of Dada. In 2004, Duchamp’s iconic work “Fountain” (1917) was named “the most influential artwork of the 20th century”, and is notably recognised as Duchamp’s most famous ‘readymade’. Fountain quickly became a symbol of Dada- in the way that it questioned and rejected traditional art conventions.
“Fountain” is a work consisting of a men’s urinal, turned upside down, signed with a fake name – the mysterious R.Mutt – and placed in a gallery space. The work, while not intended to be beautiful due to Duchamp’s rejection of retinal art, has a bizarre beauty to it- its smooth white porcelain curves, with a minimalist aesthetic, and the seemingly careless yet precise signature, that holds the aesthetic of anarchic vandalism. The work was submitted to the American Society Of Independent Artist’s Inaugural Exhibition in 1917- and it was submitted anonymously. The work was a last minute submission, and it could not be refused, as the unknown R.Mutt had paid his entry fee of $6. However, an emergency meeting quickly saw the rejection of the work being exhibited. The next month, in a magazine co-edited by Duchamp called “The Blind Man”, he defended the work, saying, “Whether Mr Mutt with his own hands made the fountain or not has no importance- he chose it. He took an ordinary article of life, placed it so that its useful significance disappeared under the new title and point of view- and created a new thought for the object”. This statement is the first known recorded version of Duchamp explaining the concept of his ready-mades.
The elementary concept of a ready-made is based on the idea that an ordinary object can become art merely by the selection of the artist, and that by the re-contextualisation of the object, it gains a new meaning. Duchamp’s discovery of the ready-made appears to be deeply rooted in the cubist obsession with tangible, solid articles. At the time of its submission, “Fountain” was absolutely radical- and it is still considered this today. Taking into account the context of the time especially, it is not hard to imagine the effect a work such as “Fountain” would have had- its impression being profound and extensive in the art world. Duchamp’s intentions were simple, yet so radical considering the time, and cryptic considering the nature of the work. Duchamp was looking to question the authority if the artist, the conventions of art, and to investigate the idea of the readymade. The authority of the artist is challenged, because ‘Fountain’ is evidence of how any object can become art, and influential art, merely by the selection of the artist- demonstrating their power as creators. Duchamp was asking, “What is art?”- Can art be a urinal turned upside down and defaced? This questioning of art in the work clearly stemmed from Duchamp’s interest in the ideas of the Dad movement- of which Duchamp was at the forefront. Duchamp’s works that look at breaking down the conventions of art hold a clear influence from the Dadaist notions that preached anti-establishment and anti-art. These are all concepts that had far-reaching impacts in the art world, and are still evident in art today, particularly in post-modernist works- as a large part of post-modernism revolves around questioning art and its purpose.
The first of Duchamp’s ready-mades was ‘Bicycle Wheel’ (1913), which consisted of a bicycle fork with a single front-wheel attached, mountain on a white wooden stool, upside down. ‘Bicycle Wheel’ holds the same aesthetic quality of ‘Fountain’ in its minimalism and sense of alchemy. This work aimed to challenge the traditional conventions of art, and sought to defy them- reflecting Duchamp’s defiance against retinal art, and the notion that all art must be handcrafted. This is conceptual art in its most raw form- art that engages the mind, and not the eyes. The appearance of ‘Bicycle Wheel’ is nonsensical and unconcerned with depicting reality- so it is not something the audience will immediately understand or relate to. This forces the audience to question the work, and therefore the paradigms of art. This was precisely Duchamp’s intention. Interestingly, the work is a reflection of Duchamp’s interest in motion and machines- emerging out of the futurist and surrealist movements. ‘Bicycle Wheel’ was arts first kinetic sculpture- a breakthrough in the eyes of the art world, and a discovery that has strongly implemented itself in art culture since- looking at the relationship between the audience and the artwork.
‘Bicycle Wheel’ and ‘Fountain’ are examples of Duchamp’s works that fully encompass notions of Dadaism, and ones that have clearly influenced and redirected the course of art history. It is through works such as ‘Fountain’ and ‘Bicycle Wheel’, that Duchamp awakened true conceptual art- art that looks at the theory or concept, rather than the craftsmanship or beauty of a work. The art world today still holds these Duchampian values, and in this way it is evident that Duchamp’s influence in the art world has been great and all-encompassing- creating and fostering conceptual art, and challenging traditionalist art conventions. Duchamp’s refusal to follow a conventional artistic path is what led him to be coined the father of conceptual art. These elements of Duchamp’s practice are still prevalent today- and are evident in the works of 20th century art icon, Robert Rauschenberg. Robert Rauschenberg was an artist in the latter half of the 20th century- and became a symbol of conceptual art, as he pushed the idea of a ready-made into new territory. It has often been said that without Duchamp, there would be no Rauschenberg- their ideas and theories inextricably linked- Rauschenberg evidently influenced by the iconoclast that is Marcel Duchamp.
‘Bed’ (1955) By Robert Rauschenberg, is a work of postmodern irony and hyper-self awareness- confronting concepts of abstract expressionism by imitating the idea of the “authentic”. Attached to a large rectangular canvas is a well-worn quilt accompanied by a pillow- arranged to suggest the form of a bed. This bed has then been scrawled upon with pencil, and splashed with paints of an energetic palette- applied in expressive drips and strokes. The faded brown of the quilt and the aged appearance of the sheets and pillow directly contrast with the chaotic mess of reds yellows blacks and blues that are splattered primarily on the top half of the canvas, or bed rather. The manner of the paints suggests a carless frenzy- however the application also appears to very deliberate and precise- creating an aesthetic symmetry and sense of balance. ‘Bed’ is not a conventionally beautiful work, and its appearance in many ways is nonsensical- yet, it is mysteriously beautiful.
Robert Rauschenberg was an American artist in the latter half of the 20th century, when the focus of the art world had shifted from Paris, to New York- where Rauschenberg was. This was also a time where the movement of Abstract Expressionism was thriving- a movement that Rauschenberg sought to challenge. This is exactly what ‘Bed’ is doing- playing with the idea that the Abstract Expressionist canvas was a demonstration of the internal state of the artist. The reference to Abstract Expressionism in the work is manifests itself in the paint, and the way the paint has been applied. The ‘drip’ style created with the paint is an imitation of Abstract Expressionist Jackson Pollock’s renound style- a clear indication that the work is challenging ideas of this movement, and challenging the idea of the “authentic” – the styles of the artists. The significance of the bed in responding to ideas of Abstract Expressionism is large- as it comments on the idea that an Abstract Expressionist canvas is an “arena of the dream” and an expression of the internal state of the artist- so Rauschenberg used his bed; a place of unconscious thoughts and internal dreams. This creates a sense of absurdity, as well as personal value. This work becomes an intimate self portrait- consistent with Rauschenberg’s idea of filling the gap between “art and life”. The idea of using ‘the bed’ as a medium of expressing internal emotions has also been present in the work “My bed” (1998) by contemporary artist Tracey Emin- where the bed becomes an intimate self-portrait, exploring notions of universal emotions. Immediately we can see considerable influence from Duchamp- the work reminiscent of issues dealt with in Duchamp’s works, particularly ‘Fountain’, and of Dadaist ideas. Much like in “Fountain”, Rauschenberg is questioning the role of an artist as a creator, and challenging the authority of the artist- looking at the Abstract Expressionists as creators, and challenging the idea of the “authentic”- evident in the mimicking of Abstract Expressionist styles. This work places questions on “what is art”- particularly as it questions the theories of Abstract Expressionism and art theories, and breaks conventions through its unorthodoxy- like many Duchamp works. From this we can see how while the material and practical elements of Rauschenberg’s works differ substantially from Duchamp’s- their conceptual intentions are very similar, as Rauschenberg has developed a sense of postmodern criticism, directly influenced by Duchamp. “Bed” is a work where the foundation of which is the concept- a direct Duchampian idea.
While Rauschenberg’s works have adopted a higher level of physical artistic skill than Duchamp’s ready-mades, we can see similarities in the way both artists use found objects as a vehicle of expression- Rauschenberg no doubt deriving this practice from Duchamp. Rauschenberg took the idea of a ready-made, and pushed it into new territory. Famously, Rauschenberg is known for his “combines”- works that express both the finding and forming of combinations in three-dimensional collage. In other words, a ‘combine’ is the assemblage of objects in combination, to alter the meaning. The idea of combining and of noticing combinations of objects and images remained at the core of Robert Rauschenberg’s practice- and is evident in his later works, which look at the combination of mass media images. Rauschenberg is famous for collecting found objects around New York City and using them in his works- meaning the collection and obtainment of the objects was on a personal level. While using the concept of the combine, painting still remained a key aspect of Rauschenberg’s material practice- and the combination of the two was frequent in his works. This combination of objects and painting is evident in perhaps Rauschenberg’s most famous work- Monogram (1959)- consisting of unlikely and unusual materials, which at the time had profound impacts on the art world. ‘Monogram’ is considered Rauschenberg’s philosophy- “drawing a line in the psychic sands of American sexual and cultural values” (Jerry Saltz, Artnet).
Monogram features a canvas- painted upon with a style similar to that of the Abstract Expressionists. This canvas has then been placed flat- and fixed on the surface is a police barrier, and on top of it stands a stuffed angora goat, encircled in a tyre. You only have to look at the materials and composition of the work to acknowledge how bizarre it is- the goats position and presence even been oddly haunting due to its life-like qualities and long, ghostly hair. The goats face has been expressively painted on with various colours- again, imitating the animated styles of the Abstract Expressionists, and much like in “Bed”, the drip styles of Jackson Pollock. The goat appears to be grazing- standing triumphantly upon this painterly canvas in victory- and destroying it.
Monogram is defined as: “A motif of two or more interwoven letters, typically a persons initials, used to identify a personal possession or as a logo”. Looking at the first half of the definition, we can see how the title ‘Monogram’ is relevant to the idea of the combine- ‘interwoven letters’- expressing ideas about the combination of objects and their significance in this work. The other part of the definition looks at the word ‘Monogram’ as being a personal identifier- a logo, a symbol to represent a person. Here, we see how ‘Monogram’ is a manifestation of Rauschenberg- the stuffed Angora goat, however unusual, can be considered a representation of Rauschenberg. The goat is a comical self-portrait of the artist- feeding off the art world and simultaneously destroying it, whilst remaining above it. A tennis ball behind the goat also suggests he is ‘defacing’ art. In traditional religious art, a goat represented the damned- which is exactly what Rauschenberg was in that society, being homosexual, and an artist. The demonstration of Abstract Expressionist style upon the canvas that the goat (or Rauschenberg) is destroying and defacing is another manifestation of challenging and attacking Abstract Expressionism- recurring in Rauschenberg’s works. The use of the Pollock drip-technique on the goats face is also indicative of this, with the same meanings as in “Bed”. “Monogram” is apocalyptic, witty, ground-breaking and Rauschenberg draws upon many of his concepts from Duchamp- and while “Monogram” is incredibly unique as a self portrait, we can see elements of it that relate back to Duchampian ideals. In particular, the way Rauschenberg communicates ideas about ‘destroying’ art, relates back to Duchamp’s ideas about breaking down art conventions, typically emerging from Dada. The use of found objects, and the deliberate selection of the objects to incorporate meaning can also be seen as an influence of Duchamp. However, most significantly, “Monogram” is a work that draws ideas about the authority of the artist, directly from Duchampian ideals. The work challenges ideas about the role and authority of the artist, through the representation of Rauschenberg as the damned- destroying, defacing, and creating.
Duchamp’s influence has been so profound; it has carried on into the 21st century- continuing to provide questions in the art world. Duchamp’s ideas, and consequently Rauschenberg’s, have become so embedded within art history, they are still relevant today. One can see the direct influence of Marcel Duchamp within the works of contemporary Chinese artist and radical, Ai Weiwei- whom also draws ideas from those of Rauschenberg as a result. Ai Weiwei is the most controversial artist in the art world currently- not only as a contemporary artist, but also as an activist, and for a short period of time, a fugitive. In 2011, Ai Weiwei was arrested at Beijing Capital international airport, at detained for 81 days under allegations of “economic crimes”. As a political activist, he is highly critical of the Chinese government, and human rights issues within China- and these are ideas that are the essential foundation for Ai Weiwei’s art- challenging authority and establishment. Immediately this is a direct link to the Dadaist notions of Duchamp. Ai Weiwei’s defiance of the Chinese Government is what caused him to essentially be banned from Chinese contemporary culture- his art being forbidden from Chinese art galleries, and all records of him on the Internet being hidden. From 1981 to 1993 Ai Weiwei lived in New York- which is where he gained exposure to the works of artists such as Andy Warhol, Jasper Johns, and notably, Marcel Duchamp- who up until now he had been unaware of, due to the nature of Chinese culture and politics. Ai Weiwei then began to start creating conceptual art- specifically by altering readymade objects. Ai Weiwei’s works have always drawn ideas from both Dadaism and late Popism- analysing culture and politics through art. This is an idea relevant in Ai Weiwei’s recent and renound work, “sunflower seeds”.
“Sunflower Seeds” is considered a sculpture- which when exhibited, fills the entire floor space of the area it occupies. The work is made up of hundreds of thousands- possibly millions- of small, porcelain sunflower seeds- hand crafted and hand painted. Ai Weiwei, commenting on the work, said; “Because they are fake seeds, it takes people a while to adjust…they ask, ‘is that possible’?” The appearance and incredible mass of the porcelain seeds is overwhelming, and ordinarily creates an idea about mass production- however, the seeds were made by the nimble fingers of towns people, in the town of Jingdezhen, 1000km from Beijing. In ancient times, people in the town made porcelain items for the Emperors court- Ai describes the art of creating things from porcelain as a “fixed language”- deeply rooted in Chinese history and culture. With the production of the sunflower seeds, Ai Weiwei wanted to employ traditional techniques, but for a work with a modern contemporary language. The adoption of traditional techniques for contemporary artworks is a theme common amongst Contemporary Chinese artists- such as Xu Bing adopting traditional methods of lantern assemblage in his work “Phoenix”, and Liu Zhuoquan, whom fosters the traditional art of snuff bottle painting, but with modern themes. This use of tradition with a modern context is an idea that comes out of a generation of artists deeply influenced by the Cultural Revolution- including Ai Weiwei. “Sunflower seeds” is a work that is centred on this response to the Cultural Revolution that changed the course of Chinese history.
The revolution was something that deeply affected Ai Weiwei and his family. Ai Weiwei’s father was denounced during the anti-rightist movement of the Cultural Revolution, and the family was sent to a labour camp, When Ai Weiwei was only one years old. They were subsequently exiled, only to return to Beijing again following Mao Zedong’s death in 1976. Loss of tradition is an idea that comes directly from the Cultural Revolution- as it was a period of time where the oppressive Chinese government attempted to eradicate all aspects of Chinese tradition and ancient culture. This is an idea that is recurring throughout Contemporary Chinese art- as these artists are the generation responding to the revolution, often as individuals whom the revolution directly affected. This use of traditional methods, such as in the production of the sunflower seeds, is restoring and reigniting aspects of Chinese tradition that for many years, were lost at the hands of the government. Placing this traditional method in a contemporary context is challenging authority. The sunflower seeds in particular are a symbol of the Cultural Revolution- as often Sunflowers and Sunflower seeds were featured in political propaganda artworks of Mao Zedong; a motif that portrays Mao as the sun, and all the people loyal to the party are the sunflowers or seeds. However, Ai Weiwei remembers sunflower seeds as a customary street food in China- the sharing of sunflower seeds a gesture of compassion and human kindness. This juxtaposes ideas of friendship and compassion, with ideas about a time of political turmoil and extreme poverty- consequently creating a sense of hope. The element of hope in the work is also evident in the production- whereby the townspeople in Jingdezhen were unified through the lengthy process of creating the sunflower seeds- which required over 30 stages.
The idea of mass-production is evident within sunflower seeds- and so it is a look into the phenomenon of Chinese geo-politics, and of culture and economics in modern china. Again we see the blend of traditional and contemporary context. A theme that is consistent throughout Ai Weiwei’s works- an example being “Coca-Cola Vase” (2007). This is a raw and confronting work that created much controversy following its exhibition. The work features what is claimed to be an original Han Dynasty Urn, thousands of years old- which has then been painted upon in bright red paint, the Coca-Cola logo; a symbol of globalisation and consumerism in contemporary society. In many ways, this work could be considered a rectified readymade, drawing idea from Duchamp’s practice. “Coca-Cola Vase” is a comment on modern china, and the loss of tradition as a result of globalisation. The rapidity and strong impact of consumerism is highlighted in the brashness of the logo- wrapping itself around the urn in a standout colour, almost like a deathly blood. When Ai Weiwei returned to Beijing after living in New York for over a decade, he recognised how much Beijing had changed at the hands of consumerism- and this work can be seen as a comment on the loss of culture due to this new materialistic world- the Coca-Cola logo occupying the urn like a disease, as consumerism did to culture. This work, like “Sunflower Seeds”, is a manifestation of traditional and contemporary- as aspect of Ai Weiwei’s conceptual practice that is consistent, and one that puts in perspective aspects of modern Chinese society- as one can be critical comparing it to tradition.
Both “Sunflower Seeds” and “Coca-Cola vase” are works that incorporate ideas about the authority of the artist- a Duchampian value that Ai Weiwei has been directly influenced by. He is quoted as saying “What Duchamp did was very dangerous… he challenged the authority of the author”. By painting a superficial, generic logo on an ancient Han Dynasty Urn, Ai Weiwei was challenging the authority of the artist- and he was simultaneously challenging the authorities of china, making a comment on the geo-political landscape of the country. By mass-producing tiny porcelain sunflower seeds by traditional means, Ai Weiwei was looking at creation, and the role of the artist as a creator- much like both Duchamp and Rauschenberg did. Ai’s use of tradition and traditional concepts or objects as a comment on the Cultural Revolution is a radical action, which can be seen as an anti-authoritarian Dadaist attitude. Duchamp’s influence on Ai Weiwei is also prevalent materially and practically- through the use of found objects, and the idea of removing the function from the object, as he did in “Coca Cola Vase”, by turning something of tradition, into a meaningless consumer item. Ai Weiwei also draws inspiration from Andy Warhol- an artist who was directly influenced by Duchamp. Much like Warhol, Ai Weiwei looks at the role of the artist through techniques of mass production, like in “Sunflower Seeds”, and through the language of consumer culture and popular iconography, such as in “Coca-Cola Vase”. One can also compare the “Coca-Cola Vase” to Duchamp’s “Fountain”- in the function of the object being changed by a mark or through the addition of text- “R.Mutt, 1917” changing a urinal into an artwork. All these ideas relate back to Duchampian values- and in this way, it is evident that Duchamp’s conceptual and material ideas have had profound impacts, extending to the practice of Contemporary artists such as Ai Weiwei.
Marcel Duchamp’s effect on the art world was as profound as an earthquake. Duchamp re-wrote the laws of art and was the revolutionary icon who created conceptual art, consequently inspiring and generating the works of artists such as Robert Rauschenberg and Ai Weiwei, who have adopted the principles of Duchampian art, and are therefore examples of how Marcel Duchamp’s practice is the basis for contemporary and conceptual art, and how intense his influence has been. Marcel Duchamp; innovator, iconoclast, radical, alchemist, pioneer of Dadaism, revolutionary, and father of conceptual art.